{"id":11055,"date":"2010-05-06T00:05:25","date_gmt":"2010-05-06T04:05:25","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/fryeblog.blog.lib.mcmaster.ca\/?p=11055"},"modified":"2010-05-06T00:05:25","modified_gmt":"2010-05-06T04:05:25","slug":"frye-on-machiavelli","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/macblog.mcmaster.ca\/fryeblog\/2010\/05\/06\/frye-on-machiavelli\/","title":{"rendered":"Frye on Machiavelli"},"content":{"rendered":"

\"niccolo-machiavelli_uffizi\"<\/a><\/p>\n

Frye taught Machiavelli\u2019s The Prince<\/em><\/a> in English 2i, English Poetry and Prose, 1500\u20131660.\u00a0 In his 1949 Diary he writes about his lecture on The Prince<\/em>: \u201cI\u2019m clarifying my view of a militant organization as pyramidal.\u00a0 In Machiavelli all peacetime activities are geared to a war economy, of course: it\u2019s a state militant as the Roman Catholic Church is a Church militant\u201d (CW 8, 91).\u00a0 \u00a0About a later lecture on Castiglione<\/a>, he writes, the \u201clecture said very little except to point out the Prince-Courtier link, & link Machiavelli\u2019s doctrine that appearance (e.g. of virtue) is essential in government with Castiglione\u2019s similar doctrine of the continuous epiphany of culture” (ibid., 98).\u00a0 Three years later at a party for R.S. Crane<\/a>, where Frye reports on snippets of the conversation, he says \u201cI said Machiavelli\u2019s Prince, if he had a courtier to advise him, wouldn\u2019t draw Castiglione\u2019s Courtier<\/em>: he\u2019d get something more like Ulysses, full of melancholy Luciferian knowledge of good & evil, of time & the chain of being\u201d (ibid., 562).<\/p>\n

In Elizabethan society Machiavelli became, as Frye says in Fools of Time<\/em>, \u201ca conventional bogey\u201d in Renaissance drama (20).\u00a0 The Machiavellian villain is, in Frye\u2019s taxonomy of characterization in Anatomy of Criticism<\/em>, the tragic counterpart of the vice or tricky slave of comedy.\u00a0 Examples of this \u201cself-starting principle of malevolence\u201d are Iago in Othello<\/em> and Edmund in King Lear<\/em>, along with Bosola in Webster\u2019s The Duchess of Malfi<\/em> (CW 22, 202).\u00a0 The Machiavellian villain \u201coften acts without motivation, from pure love of evil\u201d (\u201cCharacterization in Shakespearean Comedy\u201d).\u00a0 In his Notebooks on Renaissance Literature<\/a> <\/em>Frye has several references to this unmotivated, automomous principle of evil that makes the villain Machiavellian (CW 29, 130, 144, 275, 278).<\/p>\n

The virtues of the prince are force, courage, and cunning.\u00a0 Frye never tires of pointing out that these are not moral virtues but tactical virtues based on the art of illusion.\u00a0 This means that for the prince his virtue is not actually virtue at all but only seems to be\u2014a public relations enterprise.\u00a0 What the prince has to do is pretend to exhibit these virtues.\u00a0 Appearance becomes more important than reality, and so the prince is like a character in a play\u2014one who puts on a mask.\u00a0 Frye often contrasts Machiavelli\u2019s view of the prince with Castiglione\u2019s of the courtier (see, e.g., CW 23, 35; CW 7, 266\u201373, 528; CW 5, 178\u20139, 232; CW 27, 204; CW 13, 105; CW 20, 171; Myth and Metaphor<\/em>, 292).\u00a0 He gives the most extended account of the differences in his essay on Castiglione:<\/p>\n

We have derived two words from the metaphor of the masked actor: hypocrite and person. \u00a0The former contains a moral value judgment, the latter does not. \u00a0If we compare Castiglione on the courtier with Machiavelli on the prince, we see a remarkable parallel: both are constantly on view: what they are seen to do is, socially speaking, what they are; their reputations are the most important part of their identity, and their functional reality is their appearance. \u00a0The difference is that Machiavelli\u2019s prince, being the man who must make the decisions, must accept the large element of hypocrisy involved; must understand how and why the reputation for virtue is more important for him than the hidden reality of virtue. \u00a0It is essential for the prince to be reputed liberal, Machiavelli says, though he is probably better off if in reality he saves his money. \u00a0For the courtier, whose social function is ornamental rather than operative, the goal is an appearance which has entirely absorbed the reality, a persona or mask which is never removed even when asleep. In regard to women, we are told that men \u201c. . . sempre temono essere dall\u2019arte ingannati\u201d (1.40) [bk. 1, sec. 40?], that is, of being manipulated. For the prince manipulation is essential; for the courtier it is not. (\u201cIl Cortegiano<\/em>\u201d).<\/p><\/blockquote>\n

<\/p>\n

We all recognize that hypocrisy can lead to cynicism.\u00a0 As Frye says, \u201cI said of Bolingbroke that situations change, and the leader does what fits the new situation, not what\u2019s consistent with what he did before.\u00a0 The fact that hypocrisy is the central political virtue makes some people very cynical.\u00a0 The Catholic Church maintains that it has preserved both consistent continuity and adaptability\u2013that\u2019s Newman\u2019s point\u2013but it\u2019s not easy for anyone outside the Church to believe that.\u00a0 (Nor necessary for anyone inside it to believe it, whatever is officially said.)\u201d (CW 5, 409)\u00a0 We are cynical about advertising and public relations, as well as political statements, because we recognize in much of it that what\u2019s said isn\u2019t really true.\u00a0 But Frye was not so quick to label all hypocrisy a vice.\u00a0 Here are several of his reflections on the matter:<\/p>\n

At all costs one should keep out of moral rat-traps.\u00a0 I was recently thinking how clear was Jesus\u2019 instruction not to swear, what a miserable dodge the 39th] (I think: the one on oaths anyway) Article [of the Church of England] was, & then I wondered whether I conscientiously take an oath in court.\u00a0 I shall not soon forget the sense of relief I felt when I suddenly refused to have anything more to do with this dilemma or any others of its kind.\u00a0 Again, a certain amount of hypocrisy, of pretending or giving the impression you\u2019ve read something when you haven\u2019t, is inevitable.\u00a0 The self-directed life says: admitting that you shouldn\u2019t mislead students or kid yourself, your primary duty is to plug the gaps in your reading as soon as possible & in the meantime avoid distracting your students\u2019 attention from their own ignorance to yours.\u00a0 The superego says: your primary duty is to be absolutely honest with yourself & them\u2014a murderous piece of nonsense.\u00a0 Oh well, maybe I\u2019d have sacrificed to idols in Rome\u2014certainly I\u2019d have lapped up the meat offered to them fast enough. (CW 13, 11\u201312)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n

I used to say that hypocrisy was really a virtue, meaning it as half a joke.\u00a0 But when our worst impulses start clamoring that they\u2019re our \u201creal\u201d feelings, we realize how debased reality can be even when it\u2019s real. (CW 6, 232)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n

I don\u2019t think I have my hypocrisy-is-a-virtue point, except in a sermon, but it\u2019s essential to my moral distinction between advertising & propaganda. (CW 13, 121)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n

Jesus speaks of hypocrisy, which may be a vice in the gospel context but is the one absolutely essential cementing force that holds society together.\u00a0 Morally, it is the greatest of all virtues.\u00a0 I\u2019m overstating, I know: I\u2019m just trying to get clear the complete \u201cotherness\u201d of higher kerygma from the lower or social kind.\u00a0 As Milton says, in society we are contiguous, like bricks in a wall, not continuous as in the spiritual world. (CW 5, 270\u20131)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n

\u201cHypocrite\u201d is a moral term and \u201cperson\u201d is not: we accept that everyone has a personality, but it\u2019s supposed to be wrong for people to be hypocrites. \u00a0Hypocrisy has been called the tribute that vice pays to virtue, but to know that you\u2019re saying one thing and thinking another requires a self\u2011discipline that\u2019s practically a virtue in itself. \u00a0Certainly it\u2019s often an essential virtue for a public figure. \u00a0Situations change, and the good leader does what the new situation calls for, not what is consistent with what he did before. \u00a0When Bolingbroke orders the execution of the king\u2019s favourites, one of his gravest charges against them is the way that they have separated the king from the queen, but an act or so later he himself is ordering a much more drastic separation of them. \u00a0A successful leader doesn\u2019t get hung up on moral principles: the place for moral principles is in what we\u2019d call now the PR job. \u00a0The reputation of being virtuous or liberal or gracious is more important for the prince than the reality of these things, or rather, as in staging a play, the illusion is the reality. (Northrop Frye on Shakespeare<\/em>, 60\u20131)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n

Wayne Booth<\/a> agrees that hypocrisy is not always a vice.\u00a0 There are good and bad forms of hypocrisy\u2013\u2013what he calls \u201chypocrisy upward\u201d and \u201chypocrisy downward.\u201d\u00a0 In his autobiography, My Many Selves<\/em><\/a>, he explores the idea of hypocrisy upward, the beneficent form of the hypocritical self, and hypocrisy upward is given further elaboration in his still\u2011unpublished The Curse of Sincerity<\/em>.<\/p>\n

This little book argues that \u201cwe all need better education in the rhetorics of masking.\u201d \u00a0The point is not so much that we can all benefit from learning how to avoid the traps set by deceptive posers\u2014everyone from con men to advertisers\u2014but that because posing cannot be avoided, even by those who claim always to be completely forthright, we need to reflect more deeply about its better and worse forms. He presents the case for the universality of masking (it plays an essential role in all social interaction) and argues that in all efforts to communicate, we put on this or that mask. \u00a0Some of these posings are defensible, some not. Thus we need to distinguish between lying and hypocrisy (both involve deceit, but not all lying is hypocritical); between good and bad forms of posing (hypocrisy upward and downward); between posing for practical benefit and posing for more noble ends, such as creating a better self; between this latter form of self and the self projected from completely disinterested inquiry, as in pure research; between masking as pretense only and the practice of masking that can turn virtue into a genuine habit; and between the forms of literary masking that can improve readers and those forms that lead them astray.<\/p>\n

We all have a good measure of Machiavelli in us.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

Frye taught Machiavelli\u2019s The Prince in English 2i, English Poetry and Prose, 1500\u20131660.\u00a0 In his 1949 Diary he writes about his lecture on The Prince: \u201cI\u2019m clarifying my view of a militant organization as pyramidal.\u00a0 In Machiavelli all peacetime activities are geared to a war economy, of course: it\u2019s a state militant as the Roman […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":24,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_monsterinsights_skip_tracking":false,"_monsterinsights_sitenote_active":false,"_monsterinsights_sitenote_note":"","_monsterinsights_sitenote_category":0,"_jetpack_memberships_contains_paid_content":false,"footnotes":"","_links_to":"","_links_to_target":""},"categories":[16,54,122,148],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-11055","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-bob-denham","category-frye-as-teacher","category-politics","category-society"],"yoast_head":"\nFrye on Machiavelli - 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