{"id":31173,"date":"2013-01-30T17:39:18","date_gmt":"2013-01-30T22:39:18","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/fryeblog.blog.lib.mcmaster.ca\/?p=31173"},"modified":"2013-01-30T17:39:18","modified_gmt":"2013-01-30T22:39:18","slug":"frye-and-colin-still","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/macblog.mcmaster.ca\/fryeblog\/2013\/01\/30\/frye-and-colin-still\/","title":{"rendered":"Frye and Colin Still"},"content":{"rendered":"

\"\"<\/a><\/p>\n

[William Hogarth, The Tempest<\/em>, ca. 1735.]<\/p>\n

The following paper was delivered at “Educating the Imagination: A Conference in Honour of Northrop Frye on the Centenary of His Birth,” October 4th – 6th 2012, Victoria University in the University of Toronto.<\/strong><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

NORTHROP FRYE AND COLIN STILL<\/strong>[i]<\/a><\/p>\n

Robert D. Denham<\/p>\n

In Anatomy of Criticism<\/em> Frye notes that critics often break forth into an \u201coracular harrumph\u201d when they encounter references to alchemy, the Tarot, or Rosicrucianism.\u00a0 Even today, one encounters readers here and there, having discovered that Frye thought highly of Colin Still\u2019s book on The Tempest<\/em> or that he had read some esoteric work, recoiling in amazement, as if it automatically followed that Frye was a card\u2011carrying member of some mystery cult or was engaging in the ritual practices of Freemasonry.<\/p>\n

In the late 1970s I was invited to a party in Toronto by a friend at York University, where the assembled party\u2011goers turned out to be McLuhanites.\u00a0 When they discovered that I had an interest in Frye, they began to pepper me with questions about his having been a Mason.\u00a0 I naturally asked what evidence they had for this claim, but none was forthcoming, their assumption being that this was common knowledge.\u00a0 The rumor, apparently, was initiated by Marshall McLuhan, or at least perpetuated by him.\u00a0 McLuhan\u2019s biographer Philip Marchand writes that McLuhan \u201ccertainly never abandoned his belief that his great rival in the English department of the University of Toronto, Northrop Frye, was a Mason at heart, if not in fact\u201d (Marshall McLuhan<\/em>, 105).\u00a0 In a later book review Marchand removes the qualification, saying flatly that \u201cMcLuhan thought Frye was a Mason\u201d (\u201cFrye\u2019s Diaries\u201d). \u00a0He goes on to say that it\u2019s no wonder that McLuhan suspected that Frye was a Mason because he was interested in the occult, used diagrams, and, most damning of all\u2013\u2013get this\u2013\u2013took Colin Still\u2019s Shakespearean criticism seriously.<\/p>\n

\u201cColin Still,\u201d Marchand declares, \u201cwas a crackpot,\u201d whose book on The Tempest<\/em> \u201c[m]ost academics would have been embarrassed to be seen reading.\u201d\u00a0 All this gets picked up by Maclean\u2019s <\/em>blogger Colby Cosh, who does Marchand one better: \u201cMcLuhan . . . despised Frye because he thought he was dabbling in dark occultic forces and perhaps messing about with Freemasonry. . . . Marchand has discovered a new and major source for Frye\u2019s thinking in Colin Still, a hitherto undistinguished flake who believed The Tempest<\/em> was a disguised representation of some sort of pagan initiation rite.\u201d<\/p>\n

Although Frye occasionally comments on Freemasonry,[ii]<\/a> there is not a shred of evidence that he was a Mason or ever entertained the slightest thought of becoming one.\u00a0 As for Still\u2019s being a \u201ccrackpot\u201d and an \u201cundistinguished flake,\u201d no less a critical intelligence than R.S. Crane speaks of the \u201cpioneering work\u201d of Still in reading Shakespeare allegorically, discovering in the play \u201cthe double theme of purgation from sin and of rebirth and upward spiritual movement after sorrow and death\u201d (132). \u00a0Peter Dawkins refers to Still as an \u201ceminent scholar\u201d (xxv), and Michael Srigley has defended Still\u2019s thesis. \u00a0In a detailed examination of Still\u2019s argument, Michael Cosser says, \u201cCertainly it is not stretching credulity to see a close parallel between the play and what can be pieced together from classical sources as to the training received in the Mystery-centers of old.\u201d \u00a0In his study of the sacerdotal features of The Tempest<\/em> Robert L. Reid takes seriously Still\u2019s view that the play is a \u201cuniversal purgatorial allegory.\u201d\u00a0 Howard Nemerov calls Shakespeare\u2019s Mystery Play<\/em> an \u201cinterpretive masterpiece\u201d (470).\u00a0 These critics, like Bishop Warburton before them, are far from being crackpots and flakes.\u00a0 In the eighteenth century Warburton, as both Still and Frye were aware, had proposed the theory that book 6 of the Aeneid<\/em>\u2013\u2013the descent to the underworld\u2013\u2013corresponds to the ancient rites of initiation.[iii]<\/a>\u00a0 In other words, observations about parallels between literary works and Greek initiation rites had been around for some time: noting such parallels was a common critical practice.<\/p>\n

Still\u2019s books, listed in all the bibliographies, were also celebrated by the distinguished Shakespearean G. Wilson Knight, who calls Shakespeare\u2019s Mystery Play<\/em> an \u201cimportant landmark\u201d (Shakespeare and Religion<\/em>, 201). \u00a0As an undergraduate at Victoria College, Frye had known Knight, who taught at Trinity College at the University of Toronto in the 1930s.[iv]<\/a>\u00a0 T.S. Eliot referred to Still in his preface to Knight\u2019s The Wheel of Fire,<\/em>[v]<\/a> and it is possible that Frye ran across this reference even before he checked Still\u2019s book out of the Toronto Public Library during his sophomore year\u2013\u2013the same year that The Wheel of Fire <\/em>was published (1930).\u00a0 In The Wheel of Fire<\/em> Knight writes, \u201cSince the publication of my essay, my attention has been drawn to Mr. Colin Still\u2019s remarkable book Shakespeare\u2019s Mystery Play<\/em> . . . .\u00a0 Mr. Still\u2019s interpretation of The Tempest<\/em> is very similar to mine.\u00a0 His conclusions were reached by a detailed comparison of the play in its totality with other creations of literature, myth, and ritual throughout the ages\u201d (16).[vi]<\/a> \u00a0Knight regards Still\u2019s book as confirmation (\u201cempirical proof,\u201d he says) of his own view that The Tempest<\/em> <\/em>is a mystical work (ibid.).\u00a0 A year later Knight wrote that his view of The Tempest <\/em><\/p>\n

\n

is most interestingly corroborated by a remarkable and profound book by Mr. Colin Still, Shakespeare\u2019s Mystery Play<\/em>. . . . Mr. Still analyses The Tempest<\/em> as a work of mystic vision, and shows that it abounds in parallels with the ancient mystery cults and works of symbolic religious significance throughout the ages.\u00a0 Especially illuminating are his references to Virgil (Aeneid<\/em>, VI) and Dante.\u00a0 His reading of The Tempest<\/em> depends on references outside Shakespeare, whereas my interpretation depends entirely on references to the succession of plays which The Tempest<\/em> concludes.\u00a0 We thus reach our results by quite different routes: those results are strangely\u2013\u2013and, after all, I believe, not strangely\u2013\u2013similar.\u201d\u00a0 (\u201cMystic,\u201d 67\u20138)<\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n

<\/em>Because they have no sense of allegory and no sense of the difference between the reading of a text and the use to which that reading is put, Marchand and friends will doubtless continue to dismiss the interpretations of Still, Knight, and Frye, though one wishes that their dismissals had been based on actually having read what Frye and Still had to say about the parallels between Shakespeare and ancient myth and ritual.<\/p>\n

Still\u2019s allegorical interpretation of The Tempest<\/em> seeks to demonstrate four things: that The Tempest<\/em> has the same form as the medieval miracle and mystery plays, that it is an allegorical account \u201cof those psychological experiences\u201d referred to by the mystics as initiation, that its features are like those of the ritual and ceremonial rites of initiation, and that these resemblances are \u201cconsistent and exact\u201d (8\u20139). \u00a0His method is a comparative one: he works out the analogies between The Tempest<\/em> and myths and rituals of the past.\u00a0 In this regard Still\u2019s work stems from the work of the so\u2011called \u201cCambridge school,\u201d which, following the publication of the final edition of Sir James Frazer\u2019s The Golden Bough<\/em> in 1915, gave shape to the ritual view of drama.\u00a0 These scholars\u2013\u2013most prominently Frazer himself, Jane Ellen Harrison, F.M. Cornford, Gilbert Murray, and E.K. Chambers\u2013\u2013produced book after book applying the ritual view of drama to Greek culture.\u00a0 Colin Still, therefore, is not some eccentric on the margins of the literary establishment.\u00a0 He belongs to a very large group of critics who have expanded our view of literature by applying the myth and ritual approach.\u00a0 This group would include Jessie Weston, F.M. Cornford, Lord Ragland, Gertrude Levy, Joseph Campbell, Francis Fergusson, Theodor Gaster, C.L. Barber, Herbert Weisinger, O.B. Hardison, and of course Frye himself, to name some of the most prominent.\u00a0 The point is that in the field of literary criticism Still is very much an establishment figure.\u00a0 Thus, we need not concern ourselves overmuch with Marchand\u2019s dismissive judgments, other than to say a little learning is a dangerous thing.\u00a0\u00a0 But if Frye and Still belong in the same general critical matrix, it is perhaps worthwhile to explore the connections between them and to consider the reasons that Frye was attracted to Still\u2019s reading of The Tempest<\/em>.<\/p>\n

First of all, Still played an important role in what Frye called his ogdoad\u2013\u2013an eight-book vision that he used as a kind of road map for his life\u2019s work.\u00a0 As with all of his organizing patterns, the ogdoad was never a rigid outline, but it did correspond to the chief divisions in his conceptual universe over the years.\u00a0 Throughout his notebooks he repeatedly uses a code to refer to the eight books he planned to write.\u00a0 The original plan was actually eight concerti he dreamed of writing\u2013\u2013a dream he had at age nine.\u00a0 At about the same time, after reading Scott\u2019s novels, he imagined writing a sequence of historical novels, and after he had made his way through Dickens and Thackeray, this modulated into \u201ca sequence of eight definitive novels.\u201d\u00a0 When he was fourteen, each of these novels acquired a one-word descriptive name (Liberal, Tragicomedy, Anticlimax, Rencontre, Mirage, Paradox, Ignoramus, and Twilight), and these names, along with their symbolic codes, remained with Frye over the years, appearing hundreds of times in his notebooks as a shorthand designation for his books, both those completed and those anticipated.\u00a0 In the 1940s the eight books were reduced to what Frye called his Pentateuch, but they expanded shortly after that into the eight once again.<\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

Frye himself provides several keys to the ways that the ogdoad shaped his preoccupations over the years.\u00a0 Michael Dolzani has given us as good an explanation of the ogdoad as we are likely to get.\u00a0 And in the \u201cIntroduction\u201d to Frye\u2019s Late Notebooks <\/em>I have provided a summary of the various permutations of the ogdoad (xlii\u2013xliii).\u00a0 Now in one of his autobiographical reflections, Frye indicates that in the development of his central preoccupations Still played a decisive role:<\/p>\n

\n

\u00a0<\/em>I have long had a sense that the four books [i.e., the first four books of the ogdoad] had some kind of connexion with the four years of my undergraduate career here, though of course nobody can understand how except me.\u00a0 My first year [1929\u201330] was bits and pieces academically, and in retrospect the New Testament Greek course was pretty central to it: anyway the Bible book is connected in my mind with that year.\u00a0 The second year [1930\u201331] brought Pelham [Edgar] teaching Shakespeare, the stock company at the Empire Theatre, and my discovery of Colin Still on the Tempest.\u00a0 That\u2019s the bedrock of Tragicomedy.\u00a0 The third year [1931\u201332] was the discovery of Blake, and I\u2019m just beginning to realize that Anticlimax is in many respects a book revolving around Blake: my treatment of Blake was, after all, very largely a conceptual and Urizenic treatment.\u00a0 The fourth year [1932\u201333] was the year of the Romanticism essay, and that has always seemed to have some relation to Rencontre. (CW 15: 308\u20139)[vii]<\/a><\/em><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n

\u00a0<\/em>If, as it seems likely, this was written in 1972, Frye\u2019s recollection about links between his four undergraduate years and the first four \u201cbooks\u201d of the ogdoad takes us back some forty years.\u00a0 All of these influences are summarized in Chart 1, which adds Spengler (summer of 1932) and Frazer (Emmanuel College years) to the mix.<\/p>\n

\u00a0<\/em>Chart 1.\u00a0 Frye\u2019s Critical Beginnings: A Summary of the Chief Influences from His Victoria and Emmanuel College Years<\/strong><\/p>\n

FIRST YEAR<\/strong> (1929\u201330):\u00a0 Interest in the Bible, developing from a course in New Testament Greek.\u00a0 The foundation for Liberal.<\/p>\n

\u00a0SECOND YEAR<\/strong> (1930\u201331):\u00a0 Interest in the patterns of drama, developing from (1) Pelham Edgar\u2019s course in Shakespeare, (2) plays presented by a repertory company at the Empire Theatre, and (3) the discovery of Colin Still\u2019s book on The Tempest<\/em>.\u00a0 The foundation for Tragicomedy.<\/p>\n

\u00a0THIRD YEAR<\/strong> (1931\u201332): The discovery of Blake.\u00a0 The foundation of Anticlimax.<\/p>\n

\u00a0SUMMER OF 1932:\u00a0 Interest in the anatomy and in Spengler.<\/p>\n

\u00a0FOURTH YEAR<\/strong> (1932\u201333): Interest in Romanticism.\u00a0 The foundation of Rencontre.<\/p>\n

\u00a0EMMANUEL COLLEGE (1933\u201336): Interest in biblical typology; Frazer, and with Frazer the key to drama.<\/p>\n

[From CW 15: 308\u20139 and CW 25: 28]<\/p>\n

We note that of the influences Frye\u2019s lists only one is a literary critic\u2013\u2013Colin Still.\u00a0 We note also that of the relations Frye sees between his seven years at Victoria and Emmanuel Colleges and certain texts that he came to focus on, he wrote at least one extended piece on all but Colin Still.\u00a0\u00a0 What then can we determine about Frye\u2019s attraction to Still from the scattered references in Frye to Still\u2019s two books on The Tempest<\/em>?\u00a0 And why was Still such a seminal influence on Frye\u2019s views about Shakespeare and drama in general?<\/p>\n

Frye reports that he discovered Shakespeare\u2019s Mystery Play<\/em> not in the Victoria College Library but in the Central Circulating Library, which had been added to the Toronto Reference Library in 1930.\u00a0 During the summer of that year Frye had a job of pasting labels into new books at the Central Reference Library.\u00a0 It was here, he reports, that he ran across Still\u2019s book by accident, putting \u201caccident\u201d in quotation marks, as if it were somehow destined that Shakespeare\u2019s Mystery Play<\/em> would fall into his hands (CW 9: 296).\u00a0 In any event, Frye eventually bought a copy of Still\u2019s book, along with its companion, The Timeless Theme, <\/em>a revised version written fifteen years later and described by Still as an \u201cenlarged and clarified restatement\u201d of Shakespeare\u2019s Mystery Play<\/em> (Timeless<\/em> [1]).[viii]<\/a>\u00a0 The Timeless Theme<\/em> remained on his shelves unread for many years.\u00a0 In the early 1970s Frye wrote that he was now \u201creading the second book for the first time & it\u2019s a bit disconcerting to see how much of it is already part of my makeup.\u00a0 And my diagram\u201d (ibid.).<\/p>\n

In the papers he wrote during his Emmanuel College years Frye called on Shakespeare\u2019s Mystery Pla<\/em>y on two occasions.\u00a0 In the first, on \u201cSt. Paul and Orphism,\u201d Frye wrote, \u201cIn general, it may be said that the great contribution to art made by the Orphics was the art form of the katabasis, or descent to the underworld.\u00a0 This theme, which in painting develops into the danse macabre in the Middle Ages, is developed from Odyssey XI by Virgil in the great sixth book of the Aeneid, and from him by Dante.\u00a0 Probably Shakespeare\u2019s Tempest<\/em> belongs to the same tradition\u201d (CW 3: 181).\u00a0 At this point Frye inserts as note, \u201cVide Colin Still: Shakespeare\u2019s Mystery Play<\/em>.\u201d\u00a0 The second reference, from Frye\u2019s essay on \u201cThe Relation of Religion to the Art Forms of Music and Drama,\u201d is this: \u201cAs for the last play of all, The Tempest<\/em>, that has now been fairly proved to be an extraordinarily faithful presentation of the Greek ideas of initiation and of the ritual that accompanied them.\u00a0 And, as we have seen, these initiation symbols are logical developments of fertility symbolism, with which they were, both in the Eleusinian rites and in Shakespeare\u2019s play, explicitly associated\u201d (CW 3: 337).\u00a0 The reference here is to Still\u2019s book, and Frye inserts a note citing it.\u00a0 Still of course knew that Shakespeare had no direct knowledge of the Eleusinian rites.\u00a0 The symbolic coincidences between the ancient rituals and Shakespeare\u2019s plays are a reflection of the permanent and universal realities of what Still calls the collective genius.<\/em><\/p>\n

In the Late Notebooks<\/em> Frye reports that he was first attracted to archetypal criticism by Still\u2019s book on The Tempest<\/em> (CW 5: 46), and he certainly has Still in mind as he is developing some of the implications of the ladder symbolism in chapter 5 of Words with Power<\/em>.\u00a0 He does not mention Still in Words with Power<\/em>, but he does in the Late Notebooks<\/em>, where he says that the central conception of Still\u2019s book is its conception of the ladder of elements (CW 5: 46).\u00a0 This is a reference to Still\u2019s account of what he calls \u201cnatural symbolism\u201d\u2013\u2013the tradition that has associated the four elements\u2013\u2013earth, water, air, fire\u2013\u2013with the physical, emotional, rational, and divine features of the composition of life.\u00a0 The four elements, ranging from the earthly to the divine, remind us of the four\u2011storied universe that appears everywhere in Frye.\u00a0 One version appears in Words with Power<\/em> in the form of a chart, which is reproduced in the first three columns on the handout, Chart 2.\u00a0 The fourth column, which equates the four elements with the four bodies, is from Still\u2019<\/em>s Shakespeare\u2019s Mystery Play<\/em> (88).\u00a0 Frye picks up the idea of the four elements in chapter 5 of Words with Power<\/em>, and the distinction between the second and third rungs on Still\u2019s ladder\u2013\u2013the natural body (soma psychikos<\/em>) and the spiritual body (soma pneumatikos<\/em>) from 1 Corinthians 15\u2013\u2013is a familiar one in Frye\u2019s late work, occurring in his writing more than a dozen times.\u00a0 He even says in a notebook that the oldest idea he had for Words with Power<\/em>, \u201cthe two levels of nature, now seem to be hooking onto the two somas of Paul\u201d (CW 5: 282), and in a notebook for The Double Vision<\/em>, he remarks that the two components of this vision \u201care, of course, the vision of the soma psychikon, the conscious soul-body unit, and the vision of the soma pneumatikon, the spiritual vision\u201d (CW 6: 617).<\/p>\n

Chart 2.\u00a0 Frye\u2019s Four\u2011Storied Universe and Still\u2019s Ladder of Elements<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
Cosmic Level<\/td>\nTime<\/td>\nSpace<\/td>\nColin Still\u2019s Ladder of Elements<\/td>\nArchetypes in Chap. 5\u20138 of Words with Power<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Heaven. Blake\u2019s Eden<\/td>\nTime as total\u201cnow\u201dor real present<\/td>\nSpace as total \u201chere\u201d or real present<\/td>\nAether or fire as heaven;St. Paul\u2019s \u201cheavenly body\u201d(soma epouranios)<\/td>\nMountain;Ladder<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Unfallen world. Blake\u2019s Beulah<\/td>\nTime as exuberance or inner energy (music, dance, play)<\/td>\nSpace as home or \u201cnatural place\u201d<\/td>\nAir as Paradise; St. Paul\u2019s \u201cspiritual\u201d body (soma pneumatikos)<\/td>\nGarden<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Fallen world of experience. Blake\u2019s Generation<\/td>\nTime as \u201cthen\u201d (linear and cyclical)<\/td>\nSpace as \u201cthere\u201d (objective environment<\/td>\nWater as experience; St. Paul\u2019s \u201cnatural body\u201d (soma psychikos)<\/td>\nCarve; Ark<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Demonic world. Blake\u2019s Ulro<\/td>\nTime as pure duration and power of annihilation<\/td>\nSpace as alienation<\/td>\nEarth as the demonic (oracular);the physical body<\/td>\nFurnace<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

There is no direct evidence that Frye\u2019s encounter with the Greek terms for the two bodies Paul speaks of came from Colin Still.\u00a0 It may have come from his first\u2011year course in New Testament Greek, or it may have come from one of his Emmanuel College courses\u2013\u2013not from the lectures (Frye didn\u2019t attend those) but from his reading.\u00a0 But we do know that he read Still in the 1930\u201331 academic year, and it seems highly unlikely that he could have missed the soma psychikos <\/em>and soma pneumatikos<\/em> placed directly in the middle of Still\u2019s ladder of elements.\u00a0 And Frye does refer to the psyche<\/em> and the pneuma<\/em> in the paper on Romanticism he wrote during his fourth year at Victoria College.[ix]<\/a><\/p>\n

With regard to the fifth column in the chart, given that Frye is the great analogist, is there an analogy between the four elements and the four archetypes that Frye treats in chapters 5\u20138 of Words with Power<\/em>?\u00a0 Perhaps.\u00a0 One can see a connection between earth and the demonic furnace, air and the paradisal garden, fire and the heaven at the top of the axis mundi, and water and the ark and cave archetypes.\u00a0 By \u201caxis mundi\u201d I mean that vertical, cosmological ladder along which the various elements in the chain of being have their place.\u00a0 The ascending and descending movements along the axis mundi<\/em> are the basis of the second half of Words with Power<\/em>.<\/p>\n

Finally, Still is very much drawn to the movement in The Tempest<\/em> and in the Greek initiation rites from the katabasis <\/em>or downward journey to the anabasis <\/em>at the top of the ladder.\u00a0 These are the descent and ascent themes that play such a large role in the last half of Words with Power<\/em>.\u00a0\u00a0 It is the movement from Ulro to Eden, passing through the fallen world to the unfallen one.\u00a0 There are, of course, a number of sources in Frye for this archetypal narrative, Blake being an obvious one.\u00a0 Frye sometimes describes this narrative as the movement from oracle to wit, and I think that Still had something to do with Frye\u2019s embracing this narrative, a narrative that makes him an Odyssey<\/em> rather than an Iliad<\/em> critic.<\/p>\n

What does Frye mean by the cryptic phrase \u201coracle to wit\u201d?\u00a0 Oracle for Frye belongs to the lower-world.\u00a0 It is linked with thanatos, secrecy, solitude, intoxication, mysterious ciphers, caves, the dialectic of choice and chance, and the descent to the underworld.\u00a0 The locus of the oracle is the point of demonic epiphany, the lower, watery world of chaos and the ironic vision.\u00a0 The central oracular literary moments for Frye include Poe\u2019s Arthur Gordon Pym\u2019s diving for the cipher at the South Pole, the descent to the bottom of the sea in Keats\u2019s Endymion<\/em>, Odysseus in the cave of Polyphemus, the Igitur episode in Mallarm\u00e9, the visit to the cave of Trophonius, and, most importantly, the oracle of the bottle in Rabelais, who was one of Frye\u2019s most admired literary heroes.[x]<\/a>\u00a0 Wit is related to laughter, the transformation of recollection into repetition, the breakthrough from irony to myth, the telos<\/em> of interpenetration that Frye found in the Avatamsaka Sutra<\/em>, new birth, knowledge of both the future and the self, the recognition of the hero, the fulfillment of prophecy, revelation, and detachment from obsession.[xi]<\/a>\u00a0 The Tempest<\/em> illustrates this movement from oracle to wit, and I think that Still helped to condition Frye early on to be an Odyssey<\/em> critic. The underworld journey, as Frye says, \u201cseems to be an initiation, a learning of mysteries\u201d (CW 29: 227). \u00a0The emphasis on spiritual rebirth in The Tempest<\/em> suggests initiation rites, and this is why that Colin Still figures in all three of the extended essays Frye wrote on the play, explicitly in two and implicitly in the third.[xii]<\/a>\u00a0 He was a foundational figure in Frye\u2019s critical universe.<\/p>\n

\u00a0<\/em><\/p>\n

Works Cited<\/strong><\/p>\n

Frye\u2019s Collected Works<\/p>\n

CW 3 = Northrop Frye Student Essays 1932\u20131938<\/em>.\u00a0 Ed. Robert D. Denham: Toronto: U of Toronto P, 1997.<\/p>\n

CW 5 and 6 = Northrop Frye\u2019s Late Notebooks 1982\u20131990<\/em>.\u00a0 2 vols.\u00a0 Ed. Robert D. Denham.\u00a0 Toronto: U of Toronto P, 2000.<\/p>\n

CW 9 = The \u201cThird Book\u201d Notebooks of Northrop Frye<\/em>.\u00a0 Ed. Michael Dolzani.\u00a0 Toronto: U of Toronto P, 2002.<\/p>\n

CW 15 = Northrop Frye\u2019s Notebooks on Romance<\/em>.\u00a0 Ed. Michael Dolzani.\u00a0 Toronto: U of Toronto P, 2004.<\/p>\n

CW 20 = Northrop Frye\u2019s Notebooks on Renaissance Literature<\/em>.\u00a0 Ed. Michael Dolzani.\u00a0 Toronto: U of Toronto P, 2006.<\/p>\n

CW 23 = Northrop Frye\u2019s Notebooks for \u201cAnatomy of Criticism.\u201d<\/em>\u00a0 Ed. Robert D. Denham.\u00a0 Toronto: U of Toronto P, 2007.<\/p>\n

CW 25 = Northrop Frye\u2019s Fiction and Miscellaneous Writings<\/em>.\u00a0 Ed. Robert D. Denham.\u00a0 Toronto: U of Toronto P, 2007.<\/p>\n

CW 27 = \u201cThe Critical Path\u201d and Other Writings on Critical Theory, 1963\u20131975<\/em>.\u00a0 Ed. Jean O\u2019Grady and Eva Kushner.\u00a0 Toronto: U of Toronto P, 2009.<\/p>\n

CW 28 =Northrop Frye\u2019s Writings on Shakespeare and the Renaissance<\/em>.\u00a0 Ed. Garry Sherbert and Troni Grande.\u00a0 Toronto: U of Toronto P, 2010.<\/p>\n

Other Works Cited<\/strong><\/p>\n

Ayre, John.\u00a0 Northrop Frye: A Biography<\/em>.\u00a0 Toronto: Random House, 1989.<\/p>\n

Cosh, Colby.\u00a0 \u201cFrye\u2011ing in Hell?\u201d\u00a0 ColbyCosh.com. 30 November 2002.\u00a0 http:\/\/www.colbycosh.com\/old\/november02.html<\/a><\/em><\/p>\n

Cosser, Michael.\u00a0 \u201cShakespeare\u2019s Mystery Drama.\u201d\u00a0 Sunrise: Theosophic Perspectives <\/em>49 (December 1999\u2013January 2000).\u00a0 http:\/\/www.theosociety.org\/pasadena\/sunrise\/49-99-0\/ar-mcos2.htm<\/p>\n

Crane, R.S. \u00a0<\/em>The Languages of Criticism and the Structure of Poetry<\/em>.\u00a0 Toronto: U of Toronto P, 1953. <\/em><\/p>\n

Dawkins, Peter.\u00a0 The Wisdom of Shakespeare in \u201cThe Tempest.\u201d<\/em>\u00a0 Warwickshire: I.C. Media Productions, 2000.<\/p>\n

Denham, Robert D.\u00a0 \u201cFrye and Longinus.\u201d\u00a0 English Studies in Canada<\/em> 37, no. 2 (June 2011): 87\u2013109.<\/p>\n

Dolzani, Michael.\u00a0 \u201cThe Book of the Dead: A Skeleton Key to Northrop Frye\u2019s Notebooks.\u201d\u00a0 In Rereading Frye: The Published and Unpublished Works<\/em>.\u00a0 Ed. David Boyd and Imre Salusinszky.\u00a0 Toronto: U of Toronto P, 1999.\u00a0 19\u201338.<\/p>\n

Eliot, T.S.\u00a0 \u201cIntroduction\u201d to Knight, The Wheel of Fire<\/em>.<\/p>\n

Knight, G. Wilson.\u00a0 The Imperial Theme.\u00a0 <\/em>London: Routledge, 2002; orig. pub. 1931.<\/p>\n

______.<\/em>\u201cMystic Symbolism.\u201d\u00a0 In Knight\u2019s Shakespeare and Religion<\/em>.\u00a0 New York: Simon and Schuster, 1967; first published in The Aryan Path<\/em> 2 (1931): 4.<\/p>\n

______.\u00a0 Shakespeare and Religion: Essays from Forty Years<\/em>.\u00a0 New York: Simon and Schuster, 1968.<\/p>\n

______.\u00a0 The Wheel of Fire: Interpretations of Shakespearean Tragedy<\/em>.\u00a0 Fifth rev. ed.\u00a0 Cleveland: World Pub. Co., 1957; orig. pub. 1930. <\/em><\/p>\n

Marchand, Philip.\u00a0 \u201cFrye\u2019s Diaries Confirm McLuhan\u2019s Suspicion.\u201d\u00a0 Toronto Star<\/em>, 30 November 2002.<\/p>\n

______.\u00a0 Marshall McLuhan: The Medium and the Messenger<\/em>.\u00a0 Toronto: Random House, 1989.<\/p>\n

Nemerov, Howard.\u00a0 \u201cThe Gift of the Whole.\u201d\u00a0 Sewanee Review<\/em> 80, no. 3 (Summer 1972): 468\u201370.<\/p>\n

Reid, Robert Lanier.\u00a0 \u201cSacerdotal Vestiges in The Tempest<\/em>.\u201d\u00a0 Comparative Drama<\/em> 41, no. 4 (Winter 2007\u20138): 493\u2013513.<\/p>\n

Srigley, Michael.\u00a0 Images of Regeneration: A Study if Shakespeare\u2019s \u201cThe Tempest\u201d in Its Cultural Background<\/em>. \u00a0Uppsala: Studia Anglistica Upsaliensis, No. 58, 1985.<\/p>\n

Still, Colin.\u00a0 Shakespeare\u2019s Mystery Play: A Study of \u201cThe Tempest<\/em>.\u201d\u00a0 London: Cecil Palmer, 1921.<\/p>\n

______.\u00a0 The Timeless Theme: A Critical Theory Formulated and Applied<\/em>.\u00a0 London: Ivor Nicholson & Watson, 1936.<\/em><\/p>\n

Tamplin, Ronald.\u00a0 \u201cThe Tempest <\/em>and The Waste Land<\/em>.\u201d \u00a0American Literature<\/em> 39 (1967): 352\u201372.<\/p>\n

Warburton, Bishop William.\u00a0 The Divine Legation of Moses Demonstrated<\/em>.\u00a0 London: Thomas Tegg and Son, 1837.<\/em><\/p>\n

\u00a0<\/em><\/p>\n

Notes<\/strong><\/p>\n

\n
\n

[i]<\/a> Frye was influenced by a host of writers and thinkers\u2013\u2013poets, critics, philosopher, theologians\u2013\u2013references to whom appear only occasionally in his work.\u00a0 The present essay in one of a series I call \u201cFrye and X,\u201d referring to those influences about whom he never wrote and extended book or essay.\u00a0 So far this series includes \u201cFrye and Aristotle,\u201d \u201cFrye and Giordano Bruno,\u201d \u201cFrye and Henry Reynolds,\u201d \u201cFrye and Robert Burton,\u201d Frye and S\u00f8ren Kierkegaard,\u201d \u201cFrye and St\u00e9phane Mallarm\u00e9,\u201d \u201cFrye and Joachim of Floris,\u201d \u201cFrye and Lewis Carroll,\u201d and \u201cFrye and Longinus.\u201d\u00a0 All but the last can be found in part 4 of my e\u2013book Essays on Frye<\/em> in the Robert D. Denham Library on the Frye weblog (http:\/\/fryeblog.blog.lib.mcmaster.ca\/denhams-essays-on-northrop-frye\/<\/a>).<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n<\/div>\n

\n

[ii]<\/a> E.g., the Masonic overtones of The Magic Flute<\/em> (CW 20: 101), the Masonic links with the trade unions in the nineteenth century (CW 15: 61), the affinity between the Freemasons and the Royal Society (CW 15: 71), and the Freemason scapegoat myths (CW 5: 96).<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

\n

[iii]<\/a> \u201cAn inquiry into \u00c6neas\u2019 adventure to the shades, will have this farther advantage, the instructing us in the shows and representations of the MYSTERIES; a part of their history, which the form of this discourse upon them hath not yet enabled us to give. \u00a0So that nothing will be now wanting to a perfect knowledge of this most extraordinary and important institution.\u00a0 For, the descent of Virgil\u2019s hero into the infernal regions, I presume was no other than a figurative description of an INITIATION; and particularly, a very exact picture of the SPECTACLES in the ELEUSINIAN MYSTERIES; where every thing was done in show and machinery; and where a representation of the history of Ceres afforded opportunity of bringing in the scenes of heaven, hell, elysium, purgatory, and what ever related to the future state of men and heroes\u201d (Warburton, 251).\u00a0 Still points to this passage in Shakespeare\u2019s Mystery Play<\/em>, 10; Frye notes it in CW 28: 341.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

\n

[iv]<\/a> On the Frye\u2013Knight connection in the 1930s, see Ayre, 111\u201313.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

\n

[v]<\/a> \u201cWithout pursuing that curious and obscure problem of the meaning of interpretation farther, it occurs to me as possible that there may be an essential part of error in all interpretation, without which it would not be interpretation at all: but this line of thought may be persevered in by students of Appearance and Reality<\/em>. \u00a0Another point, more immediately relevant, is that in a work of art, as truly as anywhere, reality only exists in and through appearances. \u00a0I do not think that Mr. Wilson Knight himself, or Mr. Colin Still in his interesting book on The Tempest<\/em> called Shakespeare\u2019s Mystery Play<\/em>, has fallen into the error of presenting the work of Shakespeare as a series of mystical<\/p>\n

treatises in cryptogram, to be filed away once the cipher is read; poetry is poetry, and the surface is as marvellous as the core\u201d (Eliot, xxii).<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

\n

[vi]<\/a>\u00a0 Cf. \u201cMr. Colin Still\u2019s remarkable analysis of The Tempest<\/em> first drew my attention to the extreme importance of the \u2018Banquet\u2019 there, which he relates, with other themes, to ancient myth and ritual\u201d (Knight, Imperial<\/em>, 136).<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

\n

[vii]<\/a> Frye has a similar statement in \u201cAutobiographical Notes II\u201d where Spengler is inserted into the summer between his third and fourth years as part of the \u201clogical development\u201d of his ideas: \u201cMeanwhile, of course, my real critical interests were inexorably developing.\u00a0 Bernard Shaw had knocked the wind out of me at fifteen, and I started my sophomore year fascinated by dramatic patterns (a repertory company was doing comedies in Toronto at the time) and with an interest in Blake that got going my third year.\u00a0 My next summer (even at the time I was using my summers academically) saw an embryonic anatomy theory begin to shape itself in my notes, and of course it was that summer that I found myself reading Spengler in the Edmonton YMCA\u2014one of the great nights of my life, & one that unknown to me had converted me into a critic of my own distinctive kind.\u00a0\u00a0 My fourth year brought me to a fascinated study of Romanticism, and theology, besides shaking up an interest in Biblical typology that had been in my mind as long as I can remember, brought Frazer, & with Frazer the key to drama.\u00a0 At that point the logical evolution of my ideas was interrupted by having to flounder through two years at Oxford, get myself established as a lecturer, and try to pound my Blake ideas into a thesis shape\u201d (CW25: 2). \u00a0<\/em><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

\n

[viii]<\/a> Annotated copies of both books are in the Northrop Frye Library at the Victoria University Library.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

\n

[ix]<\/a> \u201cA mystic works, not only with a psyche<\/em>, or subjectively idealistic soul, but with a pneuma<\/em>, or universal spirit in which individuality is completely absorbed\u201d (CW 3: 44).\u00a0 <\/em><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

\n

[x]<\/a> \u201cWhen I get time to read anything I read Rabelais,\u201d Frye wrote in 1935.\u00a0 Fifty years later he says in one set of his typed notes, \u201cI\u2019ve picked up my copies of Rabelais again, as I always do when I get to thinking about a book on the verbal universe.\u00a0 Rabelais is probably the writer who most clearly grasped all the dimensions of language and verbal communication\u201d (CW 6: 458).<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

\n

[xi]<\/a> For these associations, see CW 9: 162, 178, 231, 254; CW 15: 279; and CW 23: 333.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

\n

[xii]<\/a> \u201cIntroduction to Shakespeare\u2019s Tempest<\/em> (CW 28: 44\u201352); \u201cShakespeare\u2019s The Tempest<\/em>\u201d (CW 28: 333\u201345); \u201cThe Tempest<\/em>\u201d (CW 28: 608\u201322).<\/p>\n<\/div>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

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